Legal Rational Authority Essay

Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination, or bureaucratic authority) is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. The majority of the modern states of the twentieth century are rational-legal authorities, according to those who use this form of classification Authority Types Traditional authority is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to rule is passed down, often through heredity. It does not change overtime, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In fact, Weber states: â€Å"The creation of new law opposite traditional norms is deemed impossible in principle.† Traditional authority is typically embodied in feudalism or patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal structure, â€Å"the servants are completely and personally dependent upon the lord†, while in an estate system (i.e. feudalism), â€Å"the servants are not personal servants of the lord but independent men† (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases the system of authority does not change or evolve. Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and vision inspire others. It is based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. Weber saw a charismatic leader as the head of a new social movement, and one instilled with divine or supernatural powers, such as a religious prophet. Weber seemed to favor charismatic authority, and spent a good deal of time discussing it. In a study of charisma and religion, Riesebrodt argues that Weber also thought charisma played a strong – if not integral – role in traditional authority systems. Thus, Weber’s favor for charismatic authority was particularly strong, especially in focusing on what happened to it with the death or decliAne of a charismatic leader. Charismatic authority is â€Å"routinized† in a number of ways according to Weber: orders are traditionalized, the staff or followers change into legal or â€Å"estate-like† (traditional) staff, or the meaning of charisma itself may undergo change. Legal-rational authority is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or natural law (rationality). Obedience is not given to a  specific individual leader – whether traditional or charismatic – but a set of uniform principles. Weber thought the best example of legal-rational authority was a bureaucracy (political or economic). This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations. In fact, Weber stated that the â€Å"development of the modern state is identical indeed with that of modern officialdom and bureaucratic organizations just as the development of modern capitalism is identical with the increasing bureaucratization of economic enterprise. Inter-relationships Weber’s theory of authority is very rich and intricate. Weber and others have detailed many interesting relationships and processes occurring between the types. Blau’s â€Å"Critical Remarks on Weber’s Theory of Authority† explains two of these in particular, components that either strengthen or weaken an authority type in regards to another. The three authority types may be re-enforced by traits that differentiate them from other types. Traditional authority is impersonal (unlike charisma) and non-rational (unlike legal-rational). Charismatic authority is dynamic (unlike tradition) and non-rational (again, unlike legal-rational). Finally, legal-rational authority is dynamic (unlike tradition) and impersonal (unlike charisma). Conversely, Blau means to say that traditional is un-dynamic, charisma is personal, and legal-rational is rational. The likelihood of retaining a particular type of authority may depend on the ability of that authority system to retain the traits that make it unique and reject the traits that make it more conducive to another authority type. LEGAL-RATIONAL AUTHORITY IS RATIONAL In charismatic authority Weber considers charisma to be a driving and creative force which surges through traditional authority and established rules. The sole basis of charismatic authority is the recognition or acceptance of the claims of the leader by the followers. While it is irrational, in that it is not calculable or systematic, it can be revolutionary, breaking traditional rule and can even challenge legal authority. Weber notes that traditional authority is irrational. It blocks the development of rational or legal forms of authority or acts as a barrier to the development of more rational or legal forms of authority characteristic of western societies. traditional authority a means by which inequality is created and preserved. Where no challenge to the authority of the traditional leader or group is made, then the leader is likely to remain dominant. Legal-rational authority is a particular system containing humans, like e.g. organizations, there is some authority acting as a stabilizing factor making e.g. employees follow the directions of the leaders. Authority helps to prevent anarchy, and help to define a clear hierarchy of decision-making. A clear hierarchy will potentially lead to an effective organization, consisting of strong and legitimate authority relations between leaders and followers. This authority is only granted leaders if followers find his or her authority legitimate. This illustrates the fictitious believe that leaders automatically posses authority. Instead, leaders are given authority by their followers to e.g. inspire, control and command. If authority is to be seen legitimate, the relation between authority and followers must be balanced, so that the authority relation is accepted by the followers. Legal-Rational authority rests on the belief in the â€Å"legality† of formal rules and hierarchies, and in the right of those elevated in the hierarchy to posses authority and issue commands. This type of authority is often seen as legitimate in bureaucratic systems, which enables impersonal, specific and formal structures of modern companies. People will hence find this type of authority legitimate, if the authority is distributed to leaders based on e.g. rationality and capability. Particular authority types can lose their power to – and thus transition into – other types by some of the following ways. Revolutionary ideals can be advocated by a charismatic leader or the rational pursuit of ends via abstract formal principles can both weaken traditional authority. Revolutionary charismatic movements can be crystallized into a traditional order or bureaucratized into a rational formal organization. Finally, the irrational forces and powers of tradition In traditional authority, the  legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition. Charismatic authority is legitimized by the personality and leadership qualities of the ruling individual. Finally, rational-legal authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and legality. Legal rationality and legitimacy Under rational-legal authority, legitimacy is seen as coming from a legal order and the laws that have been enacted in it. Weber defined legal order as a system where the rules are enacted and obeyed as legitimate because they are in line with other laws on how they can be enacted and how they should be obeyed. Further, they are enforced by a government that monopolizes their enactment and the legitimate use of physical force. The Legal Mode of Authority (Legitimate Domination) This is Weber’s typology of the modes of legitimate domination. The actors can ascribe legitimate validity to an order in a variety of ways. The order can be recognized as legitimate, first, by virtue of tradition, valid is that which has always been. Second, the order may be treated as legitimate by virtue of affectual,especially emotional, faith; this situation occurs especially in the case of the newly revealed or the exemplary. Third, the order may be treated as legitimate by virtue of value rational faith: valid is that which has been deduced as absolutely demanded. Fourth, legitimacy can be ascribed to an order by virtue of positive enactment of recognized legality. Such legality can be recognized as legitimate either because the enactment has been agreed upon by all those who are concerned; or by virtue of imposition by a domination of human beings over human beings which is treated as legitimate and meets with acquiescence. Orders based on tradition, affect, and value rationality can be reinforced by enacted law. Weber states from another source that what distinguishes legal rational authority, from charismatic authority and traditional authority on the one hand and leadership, persuasion and influence on the other hand, is legitimacy. Superiors feel that they have a right to issue commands; subordinates perceive an obligation to obey. Social scientist agree that authority is but one of several resources available to incumbents in formal positions For example, a Head of State is dependent upon a similar nesting  of authority. His legitimacy must be acknowledged, not just by citizens, but by those who control other valued resources: his immediate staff, his cabinet, military leaders and in the long run, the administration and political apparatus of the entire society. Emergence of the modern state Rational-legal authority is rational among the three types of authority in the sense that it brought about the Emergence of the modern state. Weber wrote that the modern state based on rational-legal authority emerged from the patrimonial and feudal struggle for power .The prerequisites for the modern Western state are: 1.monopolization by central authority of the means of administration and control based on a centralized and stable system of taxation and use of physical force 2.monopolization of legislative 3.organization of an officialdom, dependent upon the central authority Weber argued that some of those attributes have existed in various time or places, but together they existed only in Occidental civilization. The conditions that favored this were emergence of rational-legal rationality (various status groups in the Occident promoted that emergence) emergence of modern officialdom (bureaucracy), which required 1.development of the money economy, where officials are compensated in money instead of kind (usually land grants) 2.quantitative and qualitative expansion of administrative tasks 3.centralisation and increased efficiency of administration. Modern state According to Max Weber, a modern state exists where a political community has: * an administrative and legal order that has been created and can be changed by legislation that also determines its role * binding authority over citizens and actions in its jurisdiction * the right to legitimately use the physical force in its jurisdiction An important attribute of Weber’s definition of a modern state was that it is a bureaucracy. The vast majority of the modern states from the 20th century onward fall under the rational-legal authority category Bureaucracy. Bureaucracy is â€Å"the existence of a specialized administrative staff†.  According to Weber, beaucracy is a particular type of administrative structure developed through rational-legal authority. Weber noted that bureaucracy resolves some of the shortcomings of the traditional system. His view view of bureaucracy was a system of power where leaders exercise control over others — a system based on discipline. Weber stressed that the rational-legal form was the most stable of systems for both superiors and subordinates — it’s more reliable and clear, yet allows the subordinate more independence and discretion. Subordinates ideally can challenge the decisions of their leaders by referring to the stated rules — charisma becomes less important. As a result, bureaucratic systems can handle more complex operations than traditional system. RATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEM Another source reveals that legal-rational authority brings about the development of a rational legal system, there is likely to be a political system which becomes rationalized in a similar way. Associated with this are constitutions, written documents, established offices, regularized modes of representation, regular elections and political procedures. These are developed in opposition to earlier systems such as monarchies or other traditional forms, where there are no well developed set of rules. As a political or legal system develops in this rational manner, authority takes on a legal form. Those who govern or rule either have, or appear to have, a legitimate legal right to do so. Those who are subordinate within this system accept the legality of the rulers, believing they have the legitimate right to exercise power. Those with power then exercise power based on this right of legitimacy. REFERENCES * Max Weber’s Sociology in the Genealogy of the Contemporary Mode of Western Legal Thought- Duncan Kennedy * Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia- Rational-legal authority * Ashley, David and David Michael Orenstein, Sociological Theory: Classical Statements, third edition, Boston, Allyn and Bacon, 1995. * Cohen, Ira J., â€Å"Theories of Action and Praxis,† in Bryan S. Turner, editor, The Blackwell Companion to Social Theory, Oxford, Blackwell, 1996.. * Hadden, Richard W., Sociological Theory: An Introduction to the Classical Tradition, Peterborough, Broadview Press, 1997. * Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill.. * Blau, P. M. (1963). â€Å"Critical remarks on Weber’s theory of authority†. The American Political Science Review, * Crass, C. (2003). Collective liberation on my mind. Montrà ©al: Kersplebedeb. * Max Weber-Traditional, Rational –Legal and Charismatic Authority –By Dana Williams

Developing Appropriate Teaching Strategies Essay

Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a tool that teachers use to create active learning experiences in culturally diverse classrooms. Some issues that teachers may encounter are communication problems where some children in the classroom use English as their second language, keep some children engaged in learning, and having difficulties getting some families involved in the children’s education (Goldstein, 2012). These cultural challenges will be addressed using the sociological perspective conflict theory and Piaget’s preoperational stage development to offer more insight on how to manage these challenges. We will then discuss on a teacher can increase the child’s cognitive advancement and academic success. Identifying the challenges Teachers may encounter communication problems with some of the students who do not speak English as their first language. This could cause the child to have low self-esteem because he does not understand the instructions or is unable to read the material. The teacher can partner pupils with other students who speak the language and interpret for the child until the child can grasp the understanding on his own, also having the material or instruction in the child language will ensure the uses the material and learns from it. A child that is not given the material in his language can result in the child quitting school, or become underachiever, or not doing the work therefore not learning. By having the material in the child’s language and utilizing the child culture the child will gain respect for the school and his teachers. He will want to show that he understands the assignment and will become a well balances member of society. Some children may be loose interest in learning because the teacher was  delivering information to the students instead teaching needs to be active and involve not only transmission of knowledge, but also transactional relationship between learning of the student and the teacher (Bojczyk, Shriner, & Shriner, 2012). Disengaged student are distracted, passive, do not try hard, give up easily in face of a challenge, express negative emotions, fail to plan or monitor their work and withdraw. When they are in class their attention wonders. When students engage in the classroom, the teacher’s behavior plays a very important role in the initiation and regulation of engagement (Kana`iaupuni, Ledward, & Jensen, 2010). To understand student engagement, we can look at teachers’ in structural style, classroom management, and interpersonal style with students. Teachers’ instructional style should provide autonomy support not controlling the child and provision of structure not allowing children to be disruptive (New York University Steinhart School, 2008). When teachers focus on students autonomous motives to guide their learning and activity; these instruction acts support students engagement by presenting interesting and relevant learning activities, providing challenges, highlighting meaningful educational goals, and supporting students to choose to endorse classroom behaviors (Goldstein, 2012). Furthermore, when teachers can offer structure by expressing their expectations and focusing on students’ learning activity with easy to understand directions and guidance, these types of instructional acts reinforces students’ engagement by keeping the students interest on the project, developing their behavior and advoiding. Teachers provided structure that creates a positive classroom environment promoting effective teaching and learning by giving directions and providing information National Association for the Education of Young Children, n.d.). The third and final challenge that teachers face in the diverse classroom is parent participation these can result from cultural differences, not knowing how to get involved and job-related issues. The school administrators, teachers and parents can participate in joint planning, goal setting, and definition of roles, needs sensing, and setting school standards with a written policy (Plevyak, 2003). Teachers can encourage parent involvement by sending letters home inviting parents to visit to classroom and have parent- teacher day where they communicate and plan their child’s educational goals. The school administrators can have an  in-service day for training their teachers in communicating with parents that may have difficulty understanding English and the importance of participating with their child’s educational needs. Children that have their parents’ involvement in their education will enhance their child’s intrinsic motivation by offering them cho ices and the opportunity for self-direction by setting their own educational goals (Bojczyk, Shriner, & Shriner, 2012). Social Perspectives in the diverse classroom and inequality The conflict theory stresses that education reinforces inequality in society because our educational system is linked to social class (Theatrical Perspectives on Education, n.d.). The challenges faced by teachers in a culturally diverse classroom is communication issues, keeping children interesting in learning and getting parents involved in their children’s education. The conflict theory suggests that these students will be left behind because they will not be given the same status as a white child. Minorities may have issues with speaking English and communication, their parents do not speak English, and the child can lose interest in learning and develop low-esteem because their teacher’s behavior or lack of cultural awareness. Schools cause the minority students and poor white children to be placed on a lower track than that of middle and upper class white children. Some school place their student on a track which will determine the value of their education, these common tracks are college bound, vocational (job ready) or general. My brothers and I was placed on the general track because my family was considered poor and my mother was Cherokee. I can relate to the social perspective from the conflict theory of inequality. Children that are placed on the general track often have lower self-esteems, lose interest in learning, and their parents often is not involved in their education because they work, or have also been placed on the lower track leaving them a negative view of education. Conflict theory defines a social structure susceptible to to constant change. Here teachers can change the way schools place students on a track some leading to college and other heading for jobs not careers which is really unfair. Teaching strategies that engage all students and resist stereotyping are DAP or Culturally Responsive Classroom Management (CRCM), these approaches use students cultures, social experiences, prior awareness, and learning styles  so that all children are enabled to be successful in their educational goals (Teaching Tolerance, n.d.). The power to change the conflict theory into teacher developing appropriate teaching strategies rest with teachers, administrators, students, and parents or society by adjusting the way we view others. With DAP teachers can engage the students in learning by giving them a challenge in the classroom that will force them to work harder but is not so far advanced that the students will not be able to perform. This could help students that have lost interest in learning. They can also get parents involved in their child’s education by have parent/teacher conferences where the teacher explains to the parent the role and importance in their child’s education. Piaget’s Theory of Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget’s was interested in how children think; younger children they think differently from older children and adults (Furth & Wachs, 1975). Piaget theorized that babies’ motor skills control behavior throughout the life. Paget’s theory has four stages of cognitive development are sensorimotor, per-operational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. In the pre-operational stage child’s behavior is established with the use of symbols, language uses mature, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a purely illogical way. Egocentric thinking dominates this stage. Preschools are often modeled after Piaget’s theory, which stands provide part of the function for constructivist learning (Furth & Wachs, 1975). Exploratory learning and symbolic play support the emerging interest of the child. Parents and teachers should challenge the child’s capacities, considering the child’s age and should not make thing over complicated (Bojczyk, Shriner, & Shriner, 1012). Teachers should use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn such as working in groups so that the child a get experience seeing from another’s perspective such fieldstrips, play games to force the child to develop her self-regulation skills, and thought processes are being developed. At the end of this stage children start to replace imaginative thoughts with realistic ideas of the world. The challenges that teacher face in the classroom is communication, lack of interest, and parent involvement. Teachers can help students that are  experience issues communication skills with reading aloud and then asking questions about the story as well as playtime, sharing, taking part in their cognitive. Techers can ensure that children remain attentive by giving the child just the right amount of challenges when learn new thing. As far as parents being more involved in their child education teachers and students can discuss their role in the child education ad PTA meetings. Conclusion Preschoolers with developmental delays in cognition and language are in the preoperational stage according to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. Parents can be involved in the child education by attending school functions such as PTA meetings, parent/teacher conference that will allow the parent to help set their child educational goals, and allowing the parent to overcome their negative view of reduction. Teachers can challenge their students by giving them assignments that cause them to work harder, and not be too difficult that the child fails and gives up. In addition, the challenge of communication that some children may have because English is their second language is by reading aloud and asking each child what the book was about. References Bojczyk, K. E., Shriner, B. M., & Shriner, M. (2012). Supporting Children’s Socialization: A Developmental Approach. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Retrieved from Ashford Edu Furth, H. G. & Wachs, H. (1975). Thinking Goes to School: Piaget’s Theory in Practice. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press, Inc. Retrieved from ebrary http://site.ebrary.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/lib/ashford/reader.action?docID=10103507 Goldstein, L. (2008). â€Å"Teaching the Standards in Developmentally Appropriate Practice; Strategies for Incorporating the Sociopolitical Dimension of DAP in Early Childhood Teaching.† Early Childhood Education Journal 36(3), 253-260. Doi: 10.1007/s10643-008-0268-x Retrieved from EBSCOhost http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=8713255e-4978-4509-a75c-c3e4affbd6a1%40sessionmgr114&vid=2&hid=103 Goldstein, D. (2012). An Interview with Lisa Delpit on Educating ‘Other Peoples Children.’ The Na tion. Retrieved from

Erotomania

De Clerambault's Syndrome, also called erotomania, is a psychological condition in which the sufferer is under the delusion that a certain person is in love with him or her. Typically, the object of this delusion is of a higher social class than the sufferer and is merely an acquaintance – at the most – in reality. To the person with de Clerambault's syndrome, everything that the object of affection does takes on a special significance that it does not really have. De Clerambault's syndrome is named after Gaetan Gatian de Clerambault, a French psychiatrist who wrote a comprehensive paper on the condition in 1921. [pic][pic][pic]De Clerambault's syndrome has been recognized in some form since long before Gaetan Gatian de Clerambault published his paper, although there was no standard term for it. Ancient authors, including Hippocrates and Plutarch, describe cases that today would probably be diagnosed as de Clerambault's syndrome. Psychiatrist Jacques Ferrand is credited with the first mention of the syndrome in psychiatric literature, in 1623. The concept of the condition has changed throughout the centuries, as it was originally likened to illness caused by unrequited love, and only relatively recently came to be understood as a delusional belief that another person is making romantic advances. There have been many famous cases of de Clerambault's syndrome, most of which manifested themselves through stalking behavior. The object of many of these cases was a celebrity of some sort, either in the realm of politics or entertainment. One of the most well-known cases affected John Hinckley, Jr. , who shot President Ronald Reagan in 1981 in an attempt to impress actress Jodie Foster, who he believed wanted a sign of his devotion. De Clerambault's syndrome has also often been the subject of fiction. Nikolai Gogol's classic story, â€Å"Diary of a Madman† (1835), describes a descent into insanity that begins with a case of de Clerambault's syndrome. Ian McEwan's novel Enduring Love (1997), adapted to film in 2004, tells the story of a homosexual case of the condition. De Clerambault's syndrome is also the subject of the 2002 French film He Loves Me†¦ He Loves Me Not, starring Audrey Tautou of Amelie fame. Erotomania atau biasa dikenal dengan sebutan de Clerambault’s syndrome merupakan suatu bentuk gangguan kepribadian dimana para penderitanya memiliki keyakinan yang merupakan waham bahwasannya ada seseorang, biasanya yang memiliki status sosial lebih tinggi (selebritis, bintang rock, orang terkenal, wanita sosialita, bos, dll), memendam perasaan inta kepada si penderita, atau mungkin memiliki suatu bentuk hubungan intim. Gangguan kepribadian ini rata-rata penderitanya adalah kaum pria. Pertama kali ditelaah oleh psikiater asal perancis yang bernama Gaetan Gatian Clerambault, yang menyusun sebuah makalah yang membahas tentang gangguan kepribadian macam ini pada tahun 1921. walau referensi awal yang sejenis dengan gangguan ini telah ada dalam tulisan Hipokrates, Erasistratus, Plutark, dan Galen. Dalam dunia psikiatri sendiri referensi sejenis ini telah ada pertama kali dalam tahun 1623 dalam sebuah risalah berjudul Maladie d’amour ou melancolie erotique yang ditulis oleh Jacques Ferrand, dan juga disebut sebagai â€Å"old maid’s psychosis†, â€Å"erotic mania† dan â€Å"erotic self-referent delusions† sampai kemasa sekarang dimana disebut sebagai bentuk dari Erotomania atau de Clerambault’s Syndrome. Inti utama dari bentuk sindrom ini adalah si penderita memiliki suatu waham atau delusi keyakinan bahwa ada orang lain, yang biasanya memiliki status sosial yang lebih tinggi, secara sembunyi-sembunyi memendam perasaan cinta kepadanya. Para penderita selalu yakin bahwa subjek dari delusi mereka secara rahasia menyatakan cinta mereka dengan isyarat halus seperti bahasa tubuh, pengaturan perabot rumah, atau dengan cara lain yang kemungkinan tidaklah mungkin (jika yang menjadi sasaran adalah seorang public figure maka akan diartikan secara salah oleh penderita, terhadap sesuatu yang tertulis dalam media massa tentang orang tersebut). Sering kali orang yang menjadi objek dalam delusi, hanya memiliki sedikit sekali hubungan atau bahkan tidak berhubungan sama sekali dengan sang penderita. Walau demikian sang penderita tetap percaya bahwa sang objek-lah yang memulai semua hubungan khayal itu. Delusi Erotomania sering ditemukan dalam sebuah gejala awal dari sebuah gangguan delusional atau dalam konteks Skizofrenia. Terkadang subjek yang berada dalam delusi tidaklah pernah ada dalam dunia nyata, nemun yang lebih sering terjadi, subjek adalah publik figur seperti penyanyi terkenal, aktor, aktris, politikus, selebritis dll. Erotomania juga disebut-sebut sebagai suatu penyebab perilaku Stalking yaitu suatu bentuk perilaku memperhatikan orang lain tanpa sepengetahuan orang yang diperhatikan, lalu perlahan melakukan suatu upaya pendekatan yang bersifat mengganggu, biasanya dengan obsesi bahwa korban adalah orang yang perlu ditolong atau bahkan dimusnahkan. Selain itu Erotomania juga disebut sebagai penyebab dari bentuk suatu tindakan yang mengganggu orang lain. Percobaan pembunuhan terhadap Mantan Presiden Amerika Serikat, Ronald Reagan oleh John Hinckley, Jr. ilaporkan telah diakibatkan oleh erotomania yang diderita Hinckley, yang merasa bahwa artis Jodie Foster akan membeberkan kepada publik bahwa ia cinta kepadanya setelah ia membunuh sang presiden. Hinckley sendiri terbebas dari jeratan hukum karena didiagnosa memiliki gangguan jiwa (skizofrenia). Berikut adalah daftar beberapa artis yang menjadi korban dari gangguan kepribadian ini: Linda Ronstadt David Letterman Madonna Barbara Mandrell Ronald Reagan Steven Spielberg Erotomania is a type of delusion in which the affected person believes that another person, usually a stranger, is in love with him or her. The illness often occurs during psychosis, especially in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar mania. [1] In one case, erotomania was reported in a patient who had undergone surgery for a ruptured cerebral aneurysm. [2] During an erotomanic psychosis, the patient believes that a â€Å"secret admirer† is declaring his or her affection to the patient, often by special glances, signals, telepathy, or messages through the media. Usually the patient then returns the perceived affection by means of letters, phone calls, gifts, and visits to the unwitting recipient. 2] The term erotomania is often confused with â€Å"obsessive love†, obsession with unrequited love, or hypersexuality (see nymphomania). Obsessive love is not erotomania by definition. Erotomania is also called de Clerambault's syndrome, after the French psychiatrist Gaetan Gatian de Clerambault (1872–1934), who published a comprehensive review paper on the subject (Les Psychoses Passionelles) in 1921. |Co ntents | |1 History | |2 Presentation | |3 Historical examples | |4 In popular culture | 5 See also | |6 Notes | |7 References | [pic][edit] History Early references to the condition can be found in the work of Hippocrates, Erasistratus, Plutarch and Galen. In the psychiatric literature it was first referred to in 1623 in a treatise by Jacques Ferrand (Maladie d'amour ou Melancolie erotique) and has been variously called â€Å"old maid's psychosis†, â€Å"erotic paranoia† and â€Å"erotic self-referent delusions† until the common usage of the terms erotomania and de Clerambault's syndrome. G. E. Berrios and N. Kennedy outlined in ‘Erotomania: a conceptual history' (2002)[3] several periods of history through which the concept of erotomania has changed considerably: †¢ Classical times – early eighteenth century: General disease caused by unrequited love †¢ Early eighteenth – beginning nineteenth century: Practice of excess physical love (akin to nymphomania or satyriasis) †¢ Early nineteenth century – beginning twentieth century: Unrequited love as a form of mental disease †¢ Early twentieth century – present: Delusional belief of â€Å"being loved by someone else† [edit] Presentation The core symptom of the disorder is that the sufferer holds an unshakable belief that another person is secretly in love with him or her. In some cases, the sufferer may believe several people at once are â€Å"secret admirers. † The sufferer may also experience other types of delusions concurrently with erotomania, such as delusions of reference, wherein the perceived admirer secretly communicates his or her love by subtle methods such as body posture, arrangement of household objects, and other seemingly innocuous acts (or, if the person is a public figure, through clues in the media). Erotomanic delusions are typically found as the primary symptom of a delusional disorder or in the context of schizophrenia and may be treated with atypical antipsychotics. [edit] Historical examples |[pic] |This section does not cite any references or sources. | | |Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and | | |removed. (February 2010) | The assassination attempt of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley, Jr. was reported to have been driven by an erotomanic delusion that the death of the president would cause actress Jodie Foster to become infatuated with him. Late night TV entertainer David Letterman and retired astronaut Story Musgrave were both stalked by Margaret Mary Ray. [edit] In popular culture Examples of de Clerambault's syndrome (erotomania) in fiction include Ian McEwan's novel Enduring Love,[4] and the French films Anna M. (2007) and Laetitia Colombani's A la folie†¦ as du tout (2002), starring Audrey Tautou. The band Dream Theater has a song titled â€Å"Erotomania†, which is the first of a three part suite titled A Mind Beside Itself. The condition of erotomania formed the basis of the plot for the episodes â€Å"Somebody's Watching† and â€Å"Broken Mirror† of the television series Criminal Minds. Erotomania also formed the basis of the plot of the 2006 film Borat. Throughout the fi lm, Borat travels from Khazakstan in an attempt to find his â€Å"love† pahmeela anderson. At the end of the film, when Borat finds pahmeela, he attempts to kidnap her in large burlap bag [5]. [edit] See also †¢ Delusion †¢ Delusional disorder †¢ Love addiction †¢ Monomania †¢ Psychosis †¢ Schizophrenia †¢ Stalking †¢ Yandere †¢ Play Misty For Me Media Examples †¢ Enduring Love (film) †¢ He Loves Me†¦ He Loves Me Not (film) †¢ Wire in the Blood, Season 3 Episode 3 †¢ Fatal Attraction Erotomania Erotomania can be defined as a psychological disorder in which the afflicted relentlessly pursues the notion that the object of his/her affection reciprocates his/her romantic feelings and/or fantasies. This obsession with the desired individual continues long after that individual has asserted that he/she is not interested in pursuing a romantic relationship with the afflicted. Consequently, erotomaniacs tend to stalk their victims. It has been postulated that those who stalk suffer from a basic fault in their capacity to have relationships with others. (Lipson et al. , 1998). Though brought to light with the Tarasoff case, Erotomania continues to be considerably new in the literature and consequently little research has been done to suggest any consistent hypothesis as to causality. Characteristic of the erotomaniac (generally across the board) are the following: irrationality, a tendancy toward impulsive actions, obsessiveness, paranoia, psychotic tendancies. Typically the erotomaniac shares certain behavioral characteristics consistent with that of a Borderline. The erotomaniac tends to begin with simple, subtle expressions of affection to reach the object of his/her desire which later spirals out of control and can lead to expressions of anger, rage, frusteration and violence when such gestures go ignored and the victims continues to assert lack of interest. Strangely the erotomaniac fails altogether to see the victim's lack of interest. The erotomaniac attributes lack of positive response to a litany of things. In the case of my stalker, Louise attributed her ex-husband (my boyfriend) taking a restraining order out against her to a belief that somehow I was behind the scenes manipulating him to do so in order to keep him from â€Å"recognizing his love for her† and â€Å"going back to her†. Louise also wrote constant letters saying she knew I â€Å"had to be pregnant† because she didn't know why else he wouldn't be returning her calls and answering her threatening letters. Finally, the erotomaniac is psychotic and no longer in reality. Any reaction from the victim can be construed as a signal of approval. Returning to the case of my stalker, Louise believed the act of my boyfriend taking a restraining order out against her was somehow indicative of encouragement to continue to call and visit him and so she did continue, persisting even after countless arraignments, community service and jail time. †¢ Erotomania Erotomania is a rare disorder in which a person holds a delusional belief that another person, usually of a higher social status, is in love with them. Erotomania is also called de Clerambault's syndrome, after the French psychiatrist Gaetan Gatian de Clerambault who published a comprehensive review paper on the subject (Les Psychoses Passionelles) in 1942. History Early references to the condition can be found in the work of Hippocrates, Erasistratus, Plutarch and Galen. In the psychiatric literature it was first referred to in 1623 in a treatise by Jacques Ferrand (Maladie d'Amour ou Melancolie Erotique) and has been variously called â€Å"old maid's psychosis†, â€Å"erotic paranoia† and â€Å"erotic self-referent delusions† until the common usage of the terms erotomania and de Clerambault's syndrome. Berrios and Kadinksy (see references) have outlined several periods of history through which the concept of erotomania has changed considerably: †¢ Classical times – early eighteenth century: General disease caused by unrequited love †¢ Early eighteenth – beginning nineteenth century: Practice of excess physical love (akin to nymphomania or satyriasis) †¢ Early nineteenth century – beginning twentieth century: Unrequited love as a form of mental disease †¢ Early twentieth century – present: Delusional belief of â€Å"being loved by someone else† Contemporary syndrome The core of the syndrome is that the affected person has a delusional belief that another person, usually of higher social status, is secretly in love with them. The sufferer may also believe that the subject of their delusion secretly communicates their love by subtle methods such as body posture, arrangement of household objects and other seemingly innocuous acts. The object of the delusion usually has little or no contact with the delusional person, who often believes that the object initiated the fictional relationship. Occasionally the subject of the delusion may not actually exist, although more commonly subjects are media figures such as pop stars, actors and politicians. Erotomania has been cited as one cause for stalking or harassment campaigns. The assassination attempt of Ronald Reagan by John Hinckley, Jr. was reported to have been driven by an erotomanic delusion that the death of the president would cause actress Jodie Foster to publicly declare her love for Hinckley. Author and Booker Prize winner, Ian McEwan based the novel Enduring Love around the theme of a science writer who is harassed by an erotomanically deluded person. The book claims to be based on a real case report which is included in the appendix of the book, although this case report is, in reality, also fictional. The term erotomania is sometimes used in a less specific clinical sense meaning excessive pursuit of or preoccupation with love or sex. Erotomanic delusions are typically found as the primary symptom of delusional disorder, or in the context of schizophrenia. See also †¢ delusion †¢ delusional disorder †¢ paranoia †¢ psychosis †¢ schizophrenia

Military leadership Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Military leadership - Thesis Example The strategic planning will be discussed to progress the relations between the civil government and armed troops in a right direction for the betterment of the nation. The root-causes of the problems in civil-military relations and their solutions will be proposed in depth. The boundaries of the research cover various aspects of the civil-military relationships in the light of facts and figures. This study is based on the directions in research practiced in the past and proposed improvements in them. Positive relationships between the government and the military are quite necessary for the successful running of the country affairs. The set of skills required to manage the issues and activities of the military bodies are possessed by civil government mostly. This is due to the fact that civil government is directly linked with the other agencies as well as foreign organizations. All the top positions in the ruling body as possessed by the civilians that have good insight into the current issues of the country. There could be two types of governments in a country. The government that carries armed men in critical positions dictating the terms for army and defense issues and the other type of government contains the civilians in the important positions in the government that manage all the issues of the army and defense. Our focus will be on the first type of government and the strategies formulated by such a government in establishing the civil-military relations on good grounds. This practice is seen in most of the leading countries in the world like China. The leaders of the nation often give high weight to the civil management of the armed forces. It is a well known fact that the guns are meant for firing only. You need a cool head to aim them though. Civil governments play their effective role in guiding the path for the armed forces. One of

Strategic plan for one of the companies listed on Forbes International Essay

Strategic plan for one of the companies listed on Forbes International Top Ten list - Essay Example In today’s modern era, every company strives to dominate its market. In order to gain any market segment, a company must have a business strategic plan implemented to achieve its goals. Each year Forbes.com comes with a list of top corporations that are excelling in their market. One of the firms that have made a dramatic impact in its industry is Toyota. Toyota is one of the few companies that has the honor to claim itself as â€Å"not only the best automaker in the world, but also maybe the best corporation†. This paper will discuss the strategic management of Toyota and its quest to become the market leader in its industry. One of the most unique strategic planning that Toyota has implemented is to employee top management positions from Japan. Although this move might not work for every corporation, Toyota has the reputation to preserve its brand reputation. From design to corporate decisions, all operations take place in Tokyo[2]. The reason for this is clearly expl ained by John Paul MacDuffee, a professor at local university as he states, â€Å"This is about a greater maturity about globalizing and transferring knowledge that Toyota certainly has at this point.†[2]. In addition, these executives decided to ask their suppliers to reduce their cost by 30%. Management understood that every little step taken by them will influence the company in the long-run. By building a solid environment of knowledge and design, Toyota is able to utilize mass production methods[1]. How is this achieved? Well, the company is a firm believer in the Just-in-time â€Å"lean production.† Toyota’s lean manufacturing system is a critical for its strategic planning by enhancing the flow of work [1]. In addition, it focuses to reduce the organization’s waste, which dramatically increases customer value. Moreover, it levels of production level which eliminates unevenness in its manufacturing system. Just-in-time improves organization's return on investment, quality, and efficiency[1]. Undoubtedly, much of the success that Toyota has enjoyed is due to this model that is collaborated and implemented through planning and executive models. The current strategic planning for Toyota is to introduce a new line of hybrid cars. As humanity progresses to the 21st century, society has becoming more environmental friendly. Hence, Toyota saw this as an opportunity to expand its line of cars. Hence, it decided to invest heavily in research and development in order to build hybrid-electric vehicles [3]. Toyota’s ability to fund in development was critical as it poured millions of dollars without hurting its capital budget. After years of researching, Toyota decided to aggressively showcase its new hybrid Camry and Highlander, two cars that are known for quality and durability [3]. However, it was met by a tough rival as Ford introduced its newest S.U.V at the same time where Toyota showcased its news Prius. While other companyà ¢â‚¬â„¢s struggled to design hybrid cars that produced revenue, Toyota was already enjoying decent profits. Interestingly enough, the company never attempts to make any bold of false promises as other companies. Toyota executives acknowledged the fact that gas prices will continue to rise as oil becomes scarce. Furthermore, it was clear that creating an automobile that was â€Å"environmental friendly† is clearly going to be the future of the industry[3]. Hence, by carefully forecasting the

Promotions Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Promotions - Article Example Under its deal with the Lionsgate, Groupon will sell the tickets for the LINCOLIN LAWYERS at a price of $ 6 during its two day online promotion. Under this deal, consumers purchasing the tickets will be given a special code which will be valid through Fandango for redeeming tickets. Interesting point in the article The digital promotion is the point that attracts me the most. Previously, we had traditional marketing and promotional activities in which direct marketing and promotional activities were carried out. Thanks to the Internet, from the comfort of home, one can easily be reached and made aware of a particular marketing and promotional activities. It is also advantageous from a company’s point of view as well. Take an example of Groupon; currently it has direct access to more than 60 million consumers globally. In the traditional offline marketing and promotional activities, to reach and remain in constant touch with such huge number of consumers would not be an easy fo r a marketing and promotional company. A link between the article and chapter points Basically, there are two points that are simultaneously mentioned and discussed in the book and the article as well.

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 3

Human Resource Management - Essay Example Thus, under management, there exists difference between staff authority and line authority. Line authority offers managers the privilege or power to issue commands or orders to other employees or managers. Line authority establishes subordinate-superior relationship. Thus, managers connect line managers with administering various functions like production or sales which are very important for the survival of a business or industry. Line authority ushers a relationship which is advisory in nature. Line managers have line authority whereas staff managers normally have staff authority. However, staff managers do not have authority down the chain of command. Staff managers always have supportive or advisory functions. However, line managers who give the busiess the biggest headache are the ones who normally meet the business goals but make life traumatic for the business with their idiosyncratic demeanour. These are the persons who are usually blamed for showing an attitude issue: a poor , a bad, a negative attitude. Such idiosyncratic demeanour may result in either diminishing or low productivity, increasing or high error rate thereby resulting in the deteroiration of quality, frequent infringmetn of procedures and rules, lack of cooperationf from subordinate employees or lack of team spirit, poor overall performance of the business, large employee turnover and acute resistance to change in the organisation (McConnell 2010:314). As Boxall and Purcell (2003) rightly said that "here is no such thing as the single HR practice of the firm. It is more accurate to imagine the HR practices of the firm as norms around which there is variation due to the idiosyncratic behaviour of line managers† (as cited in Redman and Wilkinson, 2009), this research essay will make an earnest attempt whether there exists a single HR practice of the business as this will be influenced due to idiosyncratic behaviour of line managers in a major way. â€Å"Line Manager – Definiti on† The front line managers are one who can be accountable for the success or failure of a company and to whom much authority has been delegated for decision making and with whom the CEO is likely to spend less time. Thus , the front line managers may be general managers of sales or R&D department , floor- shop supervisors , general managers of call centres or restaurant chains. Line managers occupy a pivotal position in any organisation as they boost and motivate the morale of the employees who design, manufacture and market the company’s services or products to end consumers. Line managers are like backbone of a company as it is they who administer its execution. CEO of a company is briefed with the current happenings in the company due to the feedback loop given by the line managers . Thus , the line managers are a vital part of CEO team and comprises of senior functional heads , executive team or major investors or customers of the business. CEO should see that the line managers are being given much significance as they comprise a vital group in the management cluster , sharing much of his time by lisentening to them and employing the feedback of their interaction with the line managers to mobilise the whole organisation and

The Localization of Management in China The Implications and Essay

The Localization of Management in China The Implications and Considerations for Foreign Companies - Essay Example Finding - The book provides very sound advice on understanding the operational strategy of China's economy. There is no economy in the world as important and yet as poorly understood as China's. In his penetrating book, Sull helps us understand what really happens in some of China's most important companies. The book is packed with startling stories and much strategic advice for entrepreneurs who can seize the opportunity and manage the risk in the dynamic Chinese market. Finding - This is an intriguing study which addresses the key factors which motivate the local Chinese to open the doors of their land to do business with foreign company. The emphasis is on business lessons which foreign company needs to learn to assimilate into the local culture. The dragon is the Chinese market. Subject - The book is designed to help westerners who intend to conduct business in China. The information contained in the book can also be very helpful if you are visiting China for business or pleasure and even if you desire simply to get greater insight into Chinese worldview and not only the appropriate way to act in different situations, but also some historical and social background which is the inherent part of Chinese business culture. Finding - Thomas G. ... The information contained in the book can also be very helpful if you are visiting China for business or pleasure and even if you desire simply to get greater insight into Chinese worldview and not only the appropriate way to act in different situations, but also some historical and social background which is the inherent part of Chinese business culture. 6. Author-Thomas Geoffrey Moore Title- China in the World Market: Chinese Industry and International Sources of Reform in the Post-Mao Era. Subject- Analysis of China's position in the World market with emphasis on the reform in post-Moa Era. Finding - Thomas G. Moore examines the role of the outside world as a source of change in post-Mao China. Based on extensive documentary and interview material, the book adds the Chinese case to a long tradition of country-based studies by political economists, historians, and area specialists that have chronicled the experiences of developing countries as they enter specific industrial markets in the world economy. This book will be timely and provocative reading for anyone concerned with the nature of China's deepening participation in the world economy and its consequences for the country's development prospects, internal reforms, and foreign policy. 7. Author - Michael Porter Title - Porter on Competition Subject - Strategy formulation in coping with competition Finding - In this book Porter carefully organizes the material within three Parts: First, he focuses on competition and strategy for companies at both the level of a single industry and then for multinational or diversified companies; next, he addresses the role of location in competition; and then he Part III, he addresses some important

Observation of Teaching English Focusing on Teacher-Student as well as Essay

Observation of Teaching English Focusing on Teacher-Student as well as Student-Student Interactions - Essay Example The projector was on but was never used for the duration of the class. Likewise, some students were deemed absent, as observed from the greater number of vacant seats as compared to the first observation period. He talks in a monosyllabic manner that is perceived to be monotonous and students at the back would strain to hear the entirety of his discussion. The students posed diverse stances ranging from perceptive, partially responsive as a class, partially attentive (which means there were a few who were really inattentive), somewhat indifferent, and generally unparticipative. Description of Teacher-Student Interactions The professor discussed the day’s subject matter on the need to examine the context of the sentence by enumerating a point-by-point sentence structure as detailed in their course material. He tried to solicit participation from the student by asking them questions after relevant points from the course material were presented. Apparently, only one student from Saudi Arabia was virtually responding actively to his inquiries. The rest of the students (predominantly Asian) were either very softly responding in their respective seats or silently observing and listening during the whole discussion. At one point where handouts were needed to be disseminated, Saudi students voluntarily stood up and assisted in distributing the materials to the other members of the class. As noted, other students (Asian) were not at all participating and one actually saw two students changing seats upon the start of the class discussion; and where one student even changed seats twice for some reason. Even worse, some Asian students were also seen sleeping in class (a total of three students) and neither the professor nor the classmates made any efforts to wake them up. The professor either did not see them or was indifferent to students sleeping in his class. Description of Student-Student Interactions Regarding observing student-student interactions, one could d educe that the students are already well acquainted with each other. This acquaintance was observed to have negative effects in terms of exhibiting private conversations and communications with each other, without regard to the professor discussing the lessons. These were actually three (3) Asian students talking to each other while the professor was explaining the lesson in front of the class. A positive student interaction was observed as two (2) Saudi students voluntarily assisted the professor in distributing the handouts. The rest of the classroom environment was predominantly silent during the lecture due to absence of reaction and response; as well as active participation from the students. Description of Lesson, Activities and Group Work The lesson was delivered purely using a lecture approach. Only the course materials were the sole reference for the discussion. Despite availability and access to using the overhead projector, it was not at all utilized. Likewise, the soft v oice, monotonous manner of speech and communication pattern, as well as being stationary (standing in front of the class) limited movement, activity, vitality, and diversity in instructional approach and use of instructional materials. At some point in time, about 30 minutes after the start of the

The Analysis of the Effectiveness of 3 Food Applications Research Paper

The Analysis of the Effectiveness of 3 Food Applications - Research Paper Example Currently, there are a lot of applications with different effects as far as service provisions are concerned. A number of usability issues have also become more prevalent, as the ease with which these applications can be developed and distributed increases. In this paper, three types of food applications available in the market are being reviewed. These are Eat24, Fooducate and Foodspotting. Their effectiveness will be evaluated while stating their strengths and weaknesses thereafter (Lonczak, 2011). First and foremost is the Foodspotting application. This is a renowned visual guide to good food, where one can find and share great dishes, not only in restaurants. In addition to reviewing restaurants, one can find and share their best dishes using photos. If undecided on what to eat, the application can really help. This feature allows the user to determine the nearest best and latest foods around them. One can find a particular food they really miss or even look up to a hotel to find out their best delicacy at that time. Focusing on its application, Foodspotting has proven to be very beneficial, especially to those who are a big fan of food. It allows the user to locate a new restaurant and interesting food dishes to try in their area. It also permits, the user to share their favorite food dishes with interested parties so that they can experience such delicacies. That being said, the strength of this application is easy to figure out. One such strength is that enables the user to locate the best restaurants and dishes in their location of interest. It also enables the user to recommend friends and to see their recommended foods and places. The interface is very attractive and easy to use. With this information, you can be able to criticize local food while applauding others.

Mother and Daughter, a Heavenly Relationship Failed Essay Example for Free

Mother and Daughter, a Heavenly Relationship Failed Essay Daughter and mother relationship is an endless topic for many writers. They are meant to share the bond of love and care for each other. In the real world, however, their relationship is not as successful as it ought to be. The stories How to Talk to Your Mother and I Stand Here Ironing are the examples of this conflict. Lorrie Moore is distinguished for the clever wordplay, irony and sardonic humor of her fiction. How to Talk to Your mother is a short story in her collection Self-Help. It is about a failed relationship of a daughter and her mother over time. Similarly, Tillie Olsens I Stand Here Ironing portrays powerfully the economic and domestic burdens a poor woman faced, as well as the responsibility and powerlessness she feels over her childs life. Both stories have the same theme, but each has different technique, and the conflicts from the characters are opposite. Poor communication over time is the theme both stories share. In How to Talk to Your Mother, Ginny, the author, faded the relationship with her mother as time goes and things changed from 1939 to 1982. In 1952, Ginny started to break away by slamming the door and say Dont I know it (Moore 105) when her mother asks about her crush in junior high. Then, she becomes a young adult with a new life and would not come home for holidays. However, it is not until her mother called her by her sisters name that makes she feels uncomfortable. Learn that you have a way of knowing each other which somehow slips out and beyond the ways you have of not knowing each other at all (Moore 103). The simply How to title belies the complexities of broken communication between mother and daughter. Ginny attempts to communicate with her mother throughout decades, but it never works. In I Stand Here Ironing, the mother faced the same problem with poor communication. Readers feel deeply sorry for the mother as she is economically alone, lonely, overworked and tired. The mother is always busy and preoccupied with other children. I was working, there were four smaller ones now, there was not time for her (Olsen 191). She has little or no time to talk to Emily, the daughter. The only time they met each other is at night, when Emily is struggle over books and the mother be ironing, or do other house chores. In both stories, the mothers and daughters have really  poor communication. Each character has her own life and stared to ignore their love ones. Ginny lives her wild life with romance. On the other hand, the mother in I Stand Here Ironing is so busy with her low-class life. As a result, their relationship failed as time rolls. Although both stories share similarity, each story was written with different styles, point-of-views, and languages. Lorrie Moore presents How to Talk to Your Mother in reverse chronological order, from latest to earliest. This technique supports her main idea by illustrating the broken communication pattern existing since the narrators childhood. With this style, readers find it amusing as they can read forward or backward. Moreover, this kind of writing is very rare in literature. Tillie Olsens I Stand Here Ironing was written in a traditional flashback. It started with the mother blaming herself for Emilys outturn. Then, she remembered all the life events that result in bad decisions she made for Emily. Both stories also have different point-of-view. How to Talk to Your Mother is told in second-person, using you, instead of I. The second-person narration distances the narrator from the pain inflicted by her mother, father, and lovers. This is Moores clever choice. Readers can relate and sympathize with Ginny. On the other hand, I Stand Here Ironing is told in first-person. The mother is telling readers about her faults and her attempts to help Emily through difficult years. Readers can see the hardship the mother faced and understand her situation. Nevertheless, Moore writes the story like one would write in her diary, very informal. The full title is How to Talk to Your Mother (Notes), and the language is not very aesthetic. On the contrast, Olsen writes her story in formal, literature language. In response to her story, Helen Pike Bauer writes: Olsens story is a dialogue between circumstances and desire, constraint and love, absence and presence, silence and speech, power and helplessness. The conflicts of each character are opposite. The primary conflict in How to Talk to Your Mother is between Ginny and herself. She feels like she has her own life and her mother becomes annoying. In 1971, she wrote: Go for long walks to get away from her. Walk through wooded area; there is a life you have forgotten (Moore 103). Throughout the story, readers can see the  broken relationship is resulted from the external events of her life. She has three abortions and involving many relationships with men that she dont even like. Sometimes you confuse her with the first man you ever love, who ever loved you (Moore 102). Ginny almost blamed herself for their relationship. Her mom is always there, in her house since 1967. A year before death, her mother tells her: Is that any way to talk to your mother (Moore 101)? While Ginny experienced the external conflict of her life, the mother in I Stand Here Ironing faced an internal conflict involving Emily. She makes a very meaningful statement at the end of story: help Emily to know that she is more than this dress on the ironing board, helpless before the iron (Olsen 193). The mother constantly referred to the bad decisions she had made for Emily during her childhood. She sent Emily to live with her relatives as a toddler and came back with all baby loveliness gone (Olsen 188). Then, she sent her off again to a convalescent home. These decisions caused the mother to constantly nag at her internal self. Emily turned to a comedic teen is the result of the mothers ignorant and poor relationship, which makes the mother blaming herself. She feels like the conflict is caused by her and Emily deserved a better life. Thackeray says, God cannot be everywhere and therefore he made mother. Parents are the caretaker of their children. From their experiences, they know what is best and they would never mean ill for them. How to Talk to Your Mother and I Stand Here Ironing are short stories that remind readers to cherish their relationships with parents. Both stories have the same theme of communication, but each has different technique, and the conflicts from the characters are opposite. Their situations are very difficult: poverty, low-class, and early motherhood. Lorrie Moore writes How to Talk to Your Mother to mock the popular How-to style. She marks off each stage of the plot by repeated works and ideas of heart, babies, containers, and unsuccessful talks between mother and daughter. Tillie Olsen writes I Stand Here Ironing with many symbolisms. For example, the iron is the torment, outside pressures. The dress is her problem, or Emily. The mother is ironing out the problem from inside her heart. Both stories carry the same message of mother and daughter relationship that most people faced the same path. In the society right now, there are many children experienced  child abuses. As for many parents, they could not get their kids to listen to them. The heavenly relationship failed as lives go on.

English for Night Essay Example for Free

English for Night Essay Night Thematic Statement In the book: â€Å"Night the Author†, Elie Wiesel writes about, many different themes such as death, racism, faith, trust, love and much more. The main theme in the book would be Elies faith, his faith in God is absolute. Throughout the entire book Wiesel talks about his faith and it really shows how loyal he is to God while being shaken during his experience in the Holocaust. Wiesel was raised believing that everything on Earth was a reflection of Gods holiness and power, so everywhere he looked he was thinking about and studying this God. Elie was dedicated and wanted to know more and more each day. Wiesels faith looked as if it could never be brought down or shaken, but by the time he got to the second camp Elie was already slowly loosing faith, He says â€Å"Why did I pray? Why did I live? Why did I breathe? † Wiesel was so brainwashed that he most likely didnt even know it was happening. Wiesel says â€Å" It was silent, What had I to thank Him for? † His faith was being moved because he was looking at all the pain around him and not the hope inside. He wonders how an amazing God could be apart of such a cruel place, his faith was now rocking by the cruelty and selfishness he sees among the prisoners. But soon enough Elie was one of those selfish prisoners a kapo says â€Å"Here, every man has to fight for himself and not think of anyone else. Here, there are no fathers, no brothers, no friends. Everyone lives and dies for himself alone. † Wiesel was getting it in his head that maybe I could eat that extra bread instead of giving it to my father, Im most likely to survive longer. He was believing the lie being told and loosing much more than he had hoped. All-throughout Night Elie Wiesel writes how much he wanted to pursue God in his life and how much his life revolved around his relationship with God. Even though he has been forever changed from his horrible experience during the Holocaust, Elie still emerged with his faith. He didnt let the worst thing in his life effect the best part of his life, his faith in God.

Analysis of Quality Services in VoIP

Analysis of Quality Services in VoIP Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Background to Research Due to the Innovative changes in telephony devices and related technologies world wide, the time has come to analysis the quality in telephone devices and provide improved versions of communication channels. Locally the implementation of telephony services is getting increased; many new organizations are setting up their resources to make this system and its facilities available to the users. The research in the telephone industries is in progress since last many years shown a great improvement in all over the world. Previously this telephony service used PSTN [3] which uses 54 kbps channel now after the improvement and change in the technology this telephonic service shifted to internet protocol. As Internet is a widely used medium for data receiving and transfer. Now this new technology becomes Voice over IP. The concept of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) [4] originated in about 1994, when hobbyists began to recognize the potential of sending voice data packets over the Internet rather than communicating through standard telephone service. This allows PC users to avoid long distance charges, and it was in 1994 that the first Internet Phone Software appeared. While contemporary VoIP uses a standard telephone hooked up to an Internet connection. Previous efforts in the history of VoIP required both callers to have a computer equipped with the same software, as well as a sound card and microphone. These early applications of VoIP were marked by poor sound quality and connectivity, but it was a sign that VoIP technology was useful and promising. The evolution of VoIP occurred in next few years, gradually reaching the point where some small companies were able to offer PC to phone service in about 1998. Phone to phone service soon followed, although it was often necessary to use a computer to establish the connection. Like many Internet applications in the late 1990s, early VoIP service relied on advertising sponsorship to subsidize costs, rather than by charging customers for calls. The gradual introduction of broadband Ethernet service allowed for greater call clarity and reduced latency, although calls were still often marred by static or difficulty making connections between the Internet and PSTN (public telephone networks). However, startup VoIP companies were able to offer free calling service to customers from special locations. The breakthrough in VoIP history [9] came when hardware manufacturers such as Cisco Systems and Nortel started producing VoIP equipment that was capable of switching which means that functions that previously had been handled by a telephony service now implement in computers CPU and will work as switching a voice data packet into something that could be read by the PSTN (and vice versa) could now be done by another device, thus making VoIP hard ware less computer dependent. Once hardware started becoming more affordable, larger companies were able to implement VoIP on their internal IP networks, and long distance providers even began routing some of the calls on their networks over the Internet. Usage of VoIP has expanded from the year 2000, dramatically. Different technical standards for VoIP data packet transfer and switching and each is supported by at least one major manufacturer no clear winner has yet emerged to adopt the role of a universal standard. Whereas companies often s witch to VoIP to save on both long distance and infrastructure costs, VoIP service has also been extended to residential users. In the Span of few years, VoIP has gone from being a fringe development to a mainstream alternative to standard telephone service. At present there are two standards that are in use for VoIP switching and gateways: SIP and H.323. SIP [7] mainly relates to end-user IP Telephony applications, while H.323 is a new ITU standard for routing between the circuit-switched and packet-switched worlds used for termination of an IP originated call on the PSTN, but the converse is also becoming common at a very fast rate. As the technology getting advanced and many improvements have been implemented in making sure to maintain the quality of voice and data over the internet should be maintained. The main purpose of this thesis is to discuss the techniques to maintain the quality of VoIP and the role of protocols in VoIP which are H.323 and SIP Area of Research The area of research focuses on Study and Analysis of Quality Services in VoIP and the discussion of Role of H.323 and SIP [7] Protocols. Many techniques and mathematical models have been developed and implemented. As a matter of fact this thesis is not intended to provide any new model or strategy for improving Quality services in VoIP but to get the picture based on the standard matrix of measurement of QoS of VoIP like MOS [10]. Analysis of Quality Services of VoIP Due to the emerging and advancements in the telecommunication making All-IP integrated communicating infrastructure capable to support applications and services with diverse needs and requirements. During the last few years a lot of attention is given to delivering voice traffic over both the public internet and corporate Intranets. IP Telephony, or VoIP, does not only provide more advanced services (example personalized call forwarding, instant messaging etc) than PSTN, but it also aims to achieve the same level of QoS and reliability [1],[2]. As opposed to PSTN, VoIP utilizes one common network for signaling and voice transport and thus enjoys several advantages with respect to the telephony services that are through All-IP networks infrastructures. The most important factors that influence the adoption of VoIP include improved network utilization by using advanced voice CODECS that compress the voice samples below 54 Kbps, possibilities to offer value added services(i.e. instant m essage, personalized call forwarding etc.) just to mention a few. In VoIP world many Quality impairments [34] introduced today by the Internet, it is important to provide mechanism in order to measure the level of quality that is actually provided today in the internet to interactive multimedia applications. That is, to measure how extensive are the loss, the delay and delay jitter impairments and how bad their impact on the perceived QoS, [3] is. There are a large number of methods proposed and some of them standardized which monitor the distorted signal and provide a rating that correlates well with voice quality. The most important parameters that affect the VoIP Quality are the following: CODECS Network Packet Loss Jitter Latency Demonstration Methodology; Simulation The OPNET Simulation is used during aforesaid research work [12] and is a very powerful network simulator. Main purposes are to optimize cost, performance and availability. The following tasks are considered: Build and analyze models. Configure the object palette with the needed models. Set up application and profile configurations. Model a LAN as a single node. Specify background service utilization that changes over a time on a link. Simulate multiple scenarios simultaneously. Apply filter to graphs of results and analyze the results. Role and Analysis of H.323 SIP Protocols Based on the research works that has been done so far, this part of the thesis will discuss and elaborate the H.323 and SIP [7] protocols and a comparative analysis of these two protocols based on their specification will discuss in detail in the next chapters Results and Conclusions The final conclusion of the simulation results will be shown and a comparative analysis of different CODECS with their performances from the simulated results and Role of H.323 and SIP protocols will be discussed. Chapter 2 VoIP and Quality of Service Introduction In past traditional technology, telephone calls are carried through Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN), which provides high-quality voice transmission between two or more parties. Whereas the type of data such as email, web browsing etc. are carried over packet-based data networks like IP, ATM and Frame Relay. In the last few years, there has been a rapid shift towards using data networks to carry both the telephone calls and the data together. This so called convergence of voice and data networks is very appealing due to many considerations. VoIP systems digitize and transmit analog voice signals as a stream of packets over a digital data network. VoIP technology insures proper reconstruction of voice signals, compensating for echoes due to the end-to-end delay, for jitter and for dropped packets and for signaling required for making telephone calls. The IP network used to support IP telephony can be a standard LAN, a network of leased facilities or the Internet. VoIP calls can be made or received using standard analog, digital and IP phones. VoIP gateways serve as a bridge between the PSTN and the IP network [9]. A call can be placed over the local PSTN network to the nearest gateway server, which moves it onto the Internet for transport to a gateway at the receiving end. With the use of VoIP gateways, computer-to-telephone calls, telephone-to-computer calls and telephone-to-telephone calls can be made with ease. Access to a local VoIP gateway for originating calls can also be supported in a variety of ways. For example, a corporate PBX (Private Branch Exchange) can be configured so that all international direct dialed calls are transparently routed to the nearest gateway. High-cost calls are automatically supported by VoIP to obtain the lowest cost. To ensure interoperability between different VoIP manufacturers, VoIP equipment must follow agreed upon procedures for setting up and controlling the telephone calls. H.323 is one such family of standards that define various options for voice (and video) compression and call control for VoIP. Other calls setup and control protocols being utilized, and or being standardized include SIP, MGCP [27], and Megaco. IP Telephony goes beyond VoIP transport and defines several value added business and consumer applications for converged voice and data networks. Examples include Unified Messaging, Internet Call Center, Presence Management, Location Based Se rvices etc. During the last few years, the voice over data network services have gained increased popularity. Quick growth of the Internet Protocol (IP) based networks, especially the Internet, has directed a lot of interest towards Voice over IP (VoIP). The VoIP technology has been used in some cases, to replace traditional long-distance telephone technology, for reduced costs for the end-user. Naturally to make VoIP infrastructure and services commercially viable, the Quality of Service (QoS) needs to be at least close to the one provided by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). On the other side, VoIP associated technology will bring to the end user value added services that are currently not available in PSTN. VoIP and QoS In the networks of packet switching, the traffic engineering term is abbreviated as (QoS) or Quality of Service [3], [4], which refers to resource reservation control mechanisms instead of it, is to be understood as achieved service quality. Quality of Service (QoS). This Quality of services guarantees are important for the limited capacity network, for example in cellular data communication, especially for real-time streaming multimedia applications, for example voice over IP and IP-TV [4]. Quality of Service may or may not be agreed by Network or protocols and software and reserve capacity in the network nodes, for example during a session establishment phase. But in the entire the achieved level of performance, for example the data rate and delay, and priorities in the network nodes. The reserved capacity might be released during a tear down phase. Quality of Service does not supported by the Best Effort network Service. The ITU standard X.902 as defined the QoS quality requiremen ts on the collective behavior. The Quality of Service on all the aspects of a connection, such as guaranteed time to provide service, voice quality [3], echo, loss, reliability and so on. Grade of Service term, with many alternative definitions, rather than referring to the ability to reserve resources. The convergence of communications and computer networks has led to a rapid growth in real-time applications, such as Internet Telephony or Voice over IP (VoIP). However, IP networks are not designed to support real-time applications and factors such as network delay, jitter and packet loss lead to deterioration in the perceived voice quality. In this chapter, brief background information about VoIP networks which is relevant to the thesis is summarized. The VoIP network, protocol and system structure along with the brief over view of the QoS of VoIP [4] are described in this chapter. Voice coding technology and main Codecs also discussed in the thesis (i.e. G.729, G.723.1)[8] are discussed. Network performance characteristics (e.g. packet loss and delay/delay variation) are also presented in next sections. Problem In past years when the Internet was first deployed, it lacked the ability to provide Quality of Service guarantees due to limits in router computing power. It is therefore run at default QoS level, or best effort. The Technical Factors includes reliability, scalability, effectiveness, maintainability, Grade of Service, etc. Dropped packets Delay Jitter Out-of-order delivery Error QoS Mechanism Quality of Service (QoS) [8] can be provided by generously over-provisioning a network so that interior links are considerably faster than access links. This approach is relatively simple, and may be economically feasible for broadband networks with predictable and light traffic loads. The performance is reasonable for many applications, particularly those capable of tolerating high jitter, such as deeply-buffered video downloads. Commercially involved VoIP services are often competitive with traditional telephone service in terms of call quality even though QoS mechanisms are usually not in use on the users connection to his ISP and the VoIP providers connection to a different ISP. In high load conditions, however, VoIP quality degrades to cell-phone quality or worse. The mathematics of packet traffic indicates that a network with QoS can handle four times as many calls with tight jitter requirements as one without QoS. The amount of over-provisioning in interior links required to replace QoS depends on the number of users and their traffic demands. As the Internet now services close to a billion users, there is little possibility that over-provisioning can eliminate the need for QoS when VoIP [8] becomes more commonplace. For narrowband networks more typical of enterprises and local governments, however, the costs of bandwidth can be substantial and over provisioning is hard to justify. In these situations, two distinctly different philosophies were developed to engineer preferential treatment for packets which require it. Early work used the IntServ philosophy of reserving network resources. In this model, applications used the Resource reservation protocol (RSVP) to request and reserve resources through a network. While IntServ mechanisms do work, it was realized that in a broadband network typical of a larger service provider, Core routers would be required to accept, maintain, and tear down thousands or possibly tens of thousands of reservations. It was believed that this approach would not scale with the growth of the Internet, and in any event was antithetical to the notion of designing networks so that Core routers do little more than simply switch packets at the highest possible rates. The second and currently accepted approach is DiffServ or differentiated services. In the DiffServ model, packets are marked according to the type of service they need. In response to these markings, routers and switches use various queuing strategies to tailor performance to requirements. (At the IP layer, differentiated services code point (DSCP) markings use the 5 bits in the IP packet header. At the MAC layer, VLAN IEEE 802.1Q and IEEE 802.1D can be used to carry essentially the same information). Routers supporting DiffServ use multiple queues for packets awaiting transmission from bandwidth constrained (e.g., wide area) interfaces. Router vendors provide different capabilities for configuring this behavior, to include the number of queues supported, the relative priorities of queues, and bandwidth reserved for each queue. VoIP Networks VoIP Networks Connections Common VoIP network connections normally include the connection from phone to phone, phone to PC (IP Terminal or H.323/SIP Terminal [25]) or PC to PC, as shown in Figure 2.1. The Switched Communication Network (SCN) can be a wired or wireless network, such as PSTN, ISDN or GSM. Perceived QoS or User-perceived QoS is defined as end-to-end or mouth to ear, as the Quality perceived by the end user. It depends on the quality of the gateway (G/W) or H.323/SIP terminal and IP network performance. The latter is normally referred to as Network QoS, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. As IP network is based on the best effort principle which means that the network makes no guarantees about packet loss rates, delays and jitter, the perceived voice quality will suffer from these impairments (e.g. loss, jitter and delay). There are currently two approaches to enhance QoS for VoIP applications. The first approach relies on application-level QoS mechanisms as discussed previously to improve perceived QoS without making changes to the network infrastructure. For example, different compensation strategies for packet loss (e.g. Forward Error Correction (FEC)) and jitter have been proposed to improve speech quality even under poor network conditions. The second approach relies on the network-level QoS mechanism and the emphasis is on how to guarantee IP Network performance in order to achieve the required Network QoS. For example, IETF is working on two QoS frameworks, namely DiffServ (the Differentiated Services) and IntServ (the Integrated Services) to support QoS in the Internet. IntServ uses the per-flow approach to provide guarantees to individual streams and is classified as a flow-based resource reservation mechanism where packets are classified and scheduled according to their flow affiliation. Diff Serv provides aggregate assurances for a group of applications and is classified as a packet-oriented classification mechanism for different QoS classes. Each packet is classified individually based on its priority. VoIP Protocol Architecture Voice over IP (VoIP) is the transmission of voice over network using the Internet Protocol. Here, we introduce briefly the VoIP protocol architecture, which is illustrated in Figure 2.2. The Protocols that provide basic transport (RTP [3]), call-setup signaling (H.323 [7], SIP [8]) and QoS feedback (RTCP [4]) are shown. VoIP System Architecture Figure 2.3 shows a basic VoIP system (signaling part is not included), which consists of three parts the sender, the IP networks and the receiver [13]. At the sender, the voice stream from the voice source is first digitized and compressed by the encoder. Then, several coded speech frames are packetized to form the payload part of a packet (e.g. RTP packet). The headers (e.g. IP/UDP/RTP) are added to the payload and form a packet which is sent to IP networks. The packet may suffer different network impairments (e.g. packet loss, delay and jitter) in IP networks. At the receiver, the packet headers are stripped off and speech frames are extracted from the payload by depacketizer. Play out buffer is used to compensate for network jitter at the cost of further delay (buffer delay) and loss (late arrival loss). The de-jittered speech frames are decoded to recover speech with lost frames concealed (e.g. using interpolation) from previous received speech frames. Chapter 3 Analysis of QoS Parameters Introduction A Number of QoS [11] of parameters can be measured and monitored to determine whether a service level offered or received is being achieved. These parameters consist of the following Network availability Bandwidth Delay Jitter Loss Network Availability Network availability can have a significant effect on QoS. Simply put, if the network is unavailable, even during brief periods of time, the user or application may achieve unpredictable or undesirable performance (QoS) [11]. Network availability is the summation of the availability of many items that are used to create a network. These include network device redundancy, e.g. redundant interfaces, processor cards or power supplies in routers and switches, resilient networking protocols, multiple physical connections, e.g. fiber or copper, backup power sources etc. Network operators can increase their networks availability by implementing varying degrees of each item. Bandwidth Bandwidth is probably the second most significant parameters that affect QoS. Its allocation can be subdivided in two types Available bandwidth Guaranteed bandwidth Available bandwidth Many Networks operators oversubscribe the bandwidth on their network to maximize the return on investment of their network infrastructure or leased bandwidth. Oversubscribing bandwidth means the BW a user is subscribed to be no always available to them. This allows users to compete for available BW. They get more or less BW depending upon the amount of traffic form other users on the network at any given time. Available bandwidth is a technique commonly used over consumer ADSL networks, e.g., a customer signs up for a 384-kbps service that provides no QoS (BW) guarantee in the SLA. The SLA points out that the 384-kbps is typical but does not make any guarantees. Under lightly loaded conditions, the user may achieve 384-kbps but upon network loading, this BW will not be achieved consistently. This is most noticeable during certain times of the day when more users access the network. Guaranteed bandwidth Network operators offer a service that provides minimum BW and burst BW in the SLA. Because the BW is guaranteed the service is prices higher than the available BW service. The network operator must ensure that those who subscribe to this guaranteed BW service get preferential treatment (QoS BW guarantee) [24][25] over the available BW subscribers. In some cases, the network operator separates the subscribers by different physical or logical networks, e.g., VLANs, Virtual Circuits, etc. In some cases, the guaranteed BW service traffic may share the same network infrastructure with available BW service traffic. This is often the case at location where network connections are expensive or the bandwidth is leased from another service provider. When subscribers share the same network infrastructure, the network operators must prioritize the guaranteed the BW subscribers traffic over the available BW subscribers traffic so that in times of networks congestion the guaranteed BW subscribers SLAs are met. Burst BW can be specified in terms of amount and duration of excess BW (burst) above the guaranteed minimum. QoS mechanism may be activated to discard traffic that use consistently above the guaranteed minimum BW that the subscriber agreed to in the SLA. Delay Network delay is the transit time an application experiences from the ingress point to the egress point of the network. Delay can cause significant QoS issues with application such as SNA and fax transmission that simply time-out and final under excessive delay conditions. Some applications can compensate for small amounts of delay but once a certain amount is exceeded, the QoS becomes compromised. For example some networking equipment can spoof an SNA session on a host by providing local acknowledgements when the network delay would cause the SNA session to time out. Similarly, VoIP gateways and phones provide some local buffering to compensate for network delay. Finally delay can be both fixed and variables. Examples of fixed delay are: Application based delay, e.g., voice codec processing time and IP packet creation time by the TCP/IP software stack [32] [38]. Data transmission (queuing delay) over the physical network media at each network hop. Propagation delay across the network based on transmission distance Examples of variable delays are: Ingress queuing delay for traffic entering a network node Contention with other traffic at each network node Egress queuing delay for traffic exiting a network node Jitter Jitter is the measure of delay variation between consecutive packets for a given traffic flow. Jitter has a pronounced effect on real time delay sensitive applications such as voice and video. These real time applications expect to receive packets at a fairly constant rate with fixed delay between consecutive packets. As the arrival rates increases, the jitter impacts the applications performance [22] [27]. A minimal amount of jitter may be acceptable, but as jitter increases the application may become unusable. Some applications, such as voice gateways and IP phones, [35] can compensate for small amounts of jitter. Since a voice application requires the audio to play out at constant rate, in the next packet time, the application will replay the previous voice packets until the next voice packet arrives. However if the next packet is delayed too long it is simply discarded when it arrives resulting in a small amount of distorted audio. All networks introduce some jitter because of va riability in delay introduced by each network node as packets are queues. However as long as the jitter is bounded, QoS can be maintained. Loss Loss can occur due to errors introduced by the physical transmission medium. For example, most landline connections have very low loss as measured in the Bit Error Rate. However, wireless connections such as satellite, mobiles or fixed wireless networks have a high BER that varies due to environment or geographical conditions such as fog, rain, and RF interference, cell handoff during roaming and physical obstacles such as trees, building and mountain [2][4][25]. Wireless technologies often transmit redundant information since packets will inherently get dropped some of the time due to the nature of the transmission medium. Loss can also occur when congested network nodes drop packets. Some networking protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) offer packets loss protection by retransmitting packets that may have been dropped or corrupted by the network. When a network becomes increasingly congested, more packets are dropped and hence more TCP transmission. If congestion continues the network performance will significantly decrease because much of the BW is being used to retransmit dropped packets. TCP will eventually reduce its transmission window size, resulting in smaller packets being transmitted; this eventually will reduce congestion, resulting in fewer packets being dropped. Because congestion has a direct impact on packet loss, congestion avoidance mechanism is often deployed. One such mechanism is called Random EARLY Discard (RED). RED algorithms randomly and intentionally drop packets once the traffic reaches one or more configured threshold. RED takes advantage of the TCP protocols window size throttle feature and provides more efficient congestion management for TCP-based flows. Note that RED only provides effective congestion control for application or protocols with TCP like throttling mechanism Emission priorities Determine the order in which traffic is forwarded as it exits a network node. Traffic with higher emission priority is forwarded a head of traffic with a lower emission priority. Emission priorities also determine the amount of latency introduced to the traffic by the network nodes queuing mechanism. For example, delay-tolerant application such as email would be configured to have a lower emission priority than delay sensitive real time applications such as voice or video. These delay tolerant applications may be buffered while the delay sensitive applications are being transmitted. In its simplest of forms, emission priorities use a simple transmit priority scheme whereby higher emission priority traffic is always forwarded ahead of lower emission priority traffic. This is typically accomplished using strict priority scheduling (queuing) the downside of this approach is that low emission priority queues may never get services (starved) it there is always higher emission priority traffic with no BW rate limiting. A more elaborate scheme provides a weighted scheduling approach to the transmission of the traffic to improve fairness, i.e., the lower emission priority traffic is transmitted. Finally, some emission priority schemes provide a mixture of both priority and weighted schedulers. Discarded priorities Are used to determine the order in which traffic gets discarded. The traffic may get dropped due to network node congestion or when the traffic is out of profile, i.e., the traffic exceeds its prescribed amount of BW for some period of time. Under congestion, traffic with a higher discard priority gets dropped before traffic with a lower discard priority. Traffic with similar QoS performance can be sub divided using discard priorities. This allows the traffic to receive the same performance when the network node is not congested. However, when the network node is congested, the discard priority is used to drop the more eligible traffic first. Discard priorities also allow traffic with the same emission priority to be discarded when the traffic is out of profile. With out discard priorities traffic would need to be separated into different queues in a network node to provide service differentiation. This can be expensive since only a limited number of hardware queues (typically eight or less) are available on networking devices. Some devices may have software based queues but as these are increasingly used, network node performance is typically reduced. With discard priorities, traffic can be placed in the same queue but in effect the queue is sub divided into virtual queues, each with a different discard priority. For example if a product supports three discard priorities, then one hardware queues in effect provides three QoS Levels. Table 3.1 illustrates the QoS performance dimensions required by some common applications. Applications can have very different QoS requirements. As these are mixed over a common IP transport network, without applying QoS the network traffic will experience unpredictable behavior [22][25]. Categorizing Applications Networked applications can be categorized based on end user expectations or application requirements. Some applications are between people while other applications are a person and a networked device application, e.g., a PC and web server. Finally, some networking devices, e.g., router-to-router. Table 3.2 categorizes applications into four different traffic categories: Interactive Responsive Timely Network Control Interactive applications Some applications are interactive whereby two or more people actively participate. The participants expect the networked applications to respond in real time. In this context real time means that there is minimal delay (latency) and delay variations (jitter) between the sender an